Warmińsko-Mazurski Portal Weterynaryjny

Department of Clinical Physiology

Animal Physiology

Department of Clinical Physiology conducts Animal Physiology classes for 2^nd year students at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine. The course is taught in the form of laboratory classes, seminars and lectures. It covers the entirety of the physiological processes and regulative mechanisms of selected animal organisms with particular emphasis on the aspects directly related to the clinical veterinary (e.g. digestion in ruminants, circulation and respiration in companion animals, physiological basis of the oestrus cycle, pregnancy and lactation processes).

LECTURES:

A. Winter term

1. The importance of the nervous system, neuron characteristics, excitability, resting and action potential, impulse conduction, the role of synapses and neurotransmitters.
2. Organization of the nervous system functions, sensory and motor axis, functional levels, nerve centres and the role of their location.
3. The concept and division of nervous and motor reflexes, formation and importance of acquired reflexes, regulation of muscle tension.
4. Autonomic nervous system, organization, importance, autonomic reflexes.
5. Molecular mechanisms of skeletal muscle contraction, excitation-contraction coupling, energetics of muscle contraction, muscle fatigue.
6. Physiology of smooth muscles - contraction mechanism, myogenic and neurogenic activity, importance.
7. Principles and purposes of circulation, haemodynamic, flow rate, properties of veins and arteries, consequences of reduced arterial elasticity.
8. Heart physiology - automaticity, role of valves, coronary circulation, ECG.
9. The importance of the capillary area, blood flow conditions, filtration, resorption, mechanisms of diffusion and transport through capillaries.
10. Nervous, humoral and metabolic regulation of the heart and vascular system, regulation of blood pressure, vasomotor centre, reflex regulation, integration with cortical centres.
11. "Local" circulations and their role and importance: cerebral, hepatic, hypothalamic-pituitary, portal, renal, etc.
12. Chemical and physical properties of food, regulation of food intake, digestion in the oral cavity, composition and role of saliva, regulation of saliva secretion, salivary enzymes, swallowing mechanism.
13. Digestive processes in the single-chamber stomach, gastric glands, gastric juice, enzymes, gastric acid (HCL), regulation of juice secretion and stomach emptying.
14. Neutralization of acidic gastric contents in the duodenum - the role of pancreatic juice and bile. Composition of pancreatic juice, digestion power, nervous and hormonal regulation of secretion, absorption processes, role of bile in the digestion and absorption of fats.
15. Specificity of digestion in ruminants, digestive processes and transformations of food compounds in the forestomachs. The role of bacteria and protozoa in digestion and transformation of difficult-to-digest polysaccharides (fibre), specificity of digestive processes in young animals.

CLASSES:

B. Summer term

1. Internal secretion - definitions, growth factors - a new class of hormones with local action.
2. The role of the hypothalamus in internal secretion, pituitary gland and its hormones, tissue hormones, importance.
3. Peripheral endocrine glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, hormones and their physiological properties.
4. Peripheral endocrine glands, thyroid, parathyroid glands, hormones and their regulatory properties.
5. Erythro-granulo-, lymphopoiesis, regulation, blood volume fluctuations, hematocrit, ESR, and their importance.
6. Role and tasks: erythrocytes - hemoglobin, myoglobin compounds, importance of white blood cells and platelets.
7. Functions of plasma and tissue fluids, composition and role of plasma proteins, hemostasis, homeostasis, blood types and their importance.
8. Defense mechanisms of the body, interaction of plasma with morphotic components, non-specific and specific immunity.
9. Physiology of male reproduction: genetic sex, development and secretion of the male gonad, the concept of sexual and breeding maturity, spermato- and spermiogenesis, semen composition and metabolism.
10. Male reproductive physiology: hormonal regulation of male reproductive processes LH, FSH, PRL.
11. Physiology of female reproduction: oocytogenesis and development of ovarian follicles, atresia of ovarian follicles, mechanism of oestrus.
12. Physiology of female reproduction: mechanism of ovulation, formation of the corpus luteum and its function, luteolysis.
13. Physiology of female reproduction: oestrus cycle, hormonal contraception, ectopic pregnancy.
14. Physiology of the urinary system: fluids and electrolytes in an organism, renal autoregulation, glomerular filtration, tubular absorption and secretion.
15. Physiology of the urinary system: kidneys, secretory function, renin-angiotensin system, regulation of micturition.

Physiology of the nervous system

1. Examination of spinal reflexes on a frog model using the Turck method.
2. Examination of defensive reflexes.
3. Observation of the excitatory and inhibitory impulse spread (irradiation).
4. Influence of Novocaine on the neural impulse conduction.
5. Stretch reflexes: patellar (knee-jerk) reflex, Achilles (ankle-jerk) reflex, biceps reflex and triceps reflex
6. Pupillary light reflex.
7. Sensing the heat and cold.
8. Plantar reflex.
9. Choice RT (reaction time) paradigm in humans.
10. The distribution of taste receptors and the taste detection threshold.
11. Examination of the distribution of skin touch receptors.
12. Relationship between the taste and smell senses.
13. Locating the sound source.
14. Sight physiology: eye accommodation, colour vision, visual field, blind spot.
15. Vestibulospinal (VS) reflexes: Romberg’s test, walk test, caloric reflex (Barany’s) test.

Physiology of the muscular system

1. Determination of palm muscles contraction force with dynamometer before and after fatigue.
2. Observation of heat emission by muscles during work.
3. Determination of muscle percentage in a human body with body composition analyser.
4. Diagnostic tests for muscle contractures: Dega wall test, Thomas hip test, hamstrings contracture evaluation. Determination of mean contraction force of forearm muscles before and after fatigue using electromyography.
5. Plotting a fatigue curve of one’s finger muscles using Mosse’s ergograph.
6. Muscle evaluation using electromyography.
7. Preparation of a nerve-muscle specimen.
8. Single contraction (twitch) of a skeletal muscle.

• Normal
• After fatigue

9. Influence of stimulus strength on skeletal muscle contraction force.
10. Summation of contractions – tetanic contractions.
11. Video – “Preparation of a nerve-muscle specimen.

Physiology of circulation and respiration

1. Recording the muscle contractions on not isolated frog heart.
2. Influence of temperature and vagal nerve irritation on frog heart’s rhythm.
3. Examination of Cardiac Conduction System (CCS) of a frog heart using Stannius Ligature.
4. All-or-none principle in the heart.
5. Pulse palpation before and after fatigue.
6. Preparation of an isolated frog heart specimen.
7. Influence of calcium and potassium ions, acetylcholine and adrenaline on an isolated frog heart rhythm.
8. Observation of the capillary circulation.
9. Blood pressure measurement using the bloodless method.
10. Calculating the stroke volume (SV), cardiac output (CO), and maximal heart rate (HRmax).
11. Electrocardiography (ECG) of a human heart.
12. Recording the respiratory movements of a human thorax with thoracograph.
13. Observation of the inspiration and expiration mechanism on the Donders lung model.

Physiology of digestion

1. Observation of movements and viability of protozoa and quantifying them in the sheep’s rumen contents.
2. Influence of the environment on a protein digestion by gastric juice enzymes.
3. Physiological role of rennet.
4. Examination of a salivary amylase enzymatic activity.
5. Starch digestion by a pancreatic amylase.
6. Indirect examination of the influence of pancreatic lipases on a milk fat.
7. Actions of bile in the digestion of non-emulsified fats.
8. Indirect methods for determining the efficiency of a pancreas – stool examination.

Physiology of the blood

1. Determination of the percentage by volume of red cells in the blood sample (hematocrit).
2. Quantification of blood platelets.
3. Determination of erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESD, sed rate, Biernacki’s Reaction).
4. Quantification of erythrocytes in the peripheral blood.
5. Determination of the haemoglobin content in the blood using Drabkin’s solution.
6. Determination of the red blood cells indicators.
7. Quantification of the reticulocytes in a blood smear.
8. Determination of the red blood cells osmotic resistance – Osmotic Fragility Test (OFT).
9. Behaviour of the red blood cells in the iso-, hypo- and hypertonic environments; haemolysis.
10. Quantification of the white blood cells.
11. Determination of the percentage of the individual white blood cell types in a blood smear.
12. Determination of the buffering properties of blood.
13. Role of calcium ions in the clotting process.
14. Determination of one’s blood clotting time.
15. Determination of one’s blood type.

Physiology of the reproductive system and lactation

1. Determination of the day of pig’s oestrus cycle by macroscopic observation of its ovaries.
2. Determination of the phase of rat’s oestrus cycle by microscopic observation of the vaginal smear.
3. Macroscopic observation of reproductive organs of different farm animals in the context of their physiological functions.
4. Pregnancy diagnosis in human females.
5. Determination of a casein content in a milk sample using Walker’s method.
6. Microscopic observation of fat structures in a milk sample.

Physiology of the metabolism

1. Determination of urea levels in blood serum samples using colorimetric methods.
2. Nitrogen metabolism in animal organisms.
3. Determination of the physical properties of a urine sample.
4. Application of urine test strips to determine the pH, specific gravity, and the levels of glucose, ketones, protein and nitrites.
5. Glucose level measurement using a glucometer.